Lactancia materna y feminismo: recorrido social y cultural en España / Breastfeeding and feminism: social and cultural journey in Spain / Breastfeeding and feminism: social and cultural journey in Spain

RESUMEN OBJETIVO Analizar la influencia de cambios socio-políticos, educativos y feministas de España en el mantenimiento de lactancia materna. MÉTODO Revisión histórico-descriptiva de documentación en bases de datos, Boletines Oficiales del Estado, del Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo y Bienestar Social. RESULTADOS La lactancia materna es un fenómeno complejo influenciado por factores demográficos, biológicos, sociales y psicológicos. Ha cambiado a lo largo de la historia y, evolucionado con los movimientos feministas. La incorporación de la mujer al mercado laboral (s.XIX), produjo una modificación en el rol familiar y pareja. La sociedad del siglo XXI reclama a los poderes públicos la conciliación personal y laboral para la crianza de sus hijos. CONCLUSIONES E IMPLICACIÓN PARA LA PRÁCTICA Han sido múltiples los factores y procesos evolutivos para la situación socio-cultural de la mujer en la lactancia materna. Actualmente sigue siendo complicado compaginar gestación y crianza con el empleo, las redes formales e informales permiten avances en políticas sanitarias.

RESUMO OBJETIVO Analisar a influência das mudanças sócio-políticas, educativas e feministas em Espanha na manutenção do aleitamento materno. MÉTODO Revisão histórico-descritiva da documentação em bases de dados, Boletins Oficiais do Estado, do Ministério da Saúde e do Consumo e da Previdência Social. RESULTADOS O aleitamento materno é um fenómeno complexo influenciado por factores demográficos, biológicos, sociais e psicológicos. Ela mudou ao longo da história e evoluiu com os movimentos feministas. A incorporação das mulheres ao mercado de trabalho (século XIX), produziu uma modificação no papel da família e do casal. A sociedade do século XXI exige do poder público a conciliação pessoal e laboral para a educação dos seus filhos. CONCLUSÕES E IMPLICAÇÕES PARA A PRÁTICA Tem havido múltiplos factores e processos evolutivos para a situação sociocultural das mulheres em aleitamento materno. Hoje em dia, ainda é complicado combinar gravidez e educação com emprego, e as redes formais e informais permitem avanços nas políticas de saúde.

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the influence of socio-political, educational and feminist changes in Spain on the maintenance of breastfeeding. METHOD Historical-descriptive review of documentation in databases, Official State Bulletins, of the Ministry of Health and Consumer Affairs and Social Welfare. RESULTS Breastfeeding is a complex phenomenon influenced by demographic, biological, social and psychological factors. It has changed throughout history and evolved with the feminist movements. The incorporation of women to the labor market (19th century), produced a modification in the family and couple role. The society of the 21st century demands from the public authorities the personal and labor conciliation for the upbringing of their children. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION FOR PRACTICE There have been multiple factors and evolutionary processes for the socio-cultural situation of women in breastfeeding. Nowadays, it is still complicated to combine pregnancy and upbringing with employment, and formal and informal networks allow advances in health policies.

[May '68 revolution and gender post-feminism]. / La revolución de mayo del 68 y el postfeminismo de género.

Gender was an important component in the May '68 revolution. However, what was originally proposed as an effort for equality and the defense of the legitimate prerogatives of women, evolved into a movement, gender post-feminism, which it set aside their real interests and needs, pursuing other, even contradictory, goals. This article tries to justify the previous statement, starting from some of the main currents of thought what were at the base of the revolution.

The Contraceptive Pill in Ireland c.1964-79: Activism, Women and Patient-Doctor Relationships.

The twentieth-century history of men and women's attempts to gain access to reproductive health services in the Republic of Ireland has been significantly shaped by Ireland's social and religious context. Although contraception was illegal in Ireland from 1935 to 1979, declining family sizes in this period suggest that many Irish men and women were practising fertility control measures. From the mid-1960s, the contraceptive pill was marketed in Ireland as a 'cycle regulator'. In order to obtain a prescription for the pill, Irish women would therefore complain to their doctors that they had heavy periods or irregular cycles. However, doing so could mean going against one's faith, and also depended on finding a sympathetic doctor. The contraceptive pill was heavily prescribed in Ireland during the 1960s and 1970s as it was the only contraceptive available legally, albeit prescribed through 'coded language'. The pill was critiqued by men and women on both sides of the debate over the legalisation of contraception. Anti-contraception activists argued that the contraceptive pill was an abortifacient, while both anti-contraception activists and feminist campaigners alike drew attention to its perceived health risks. As well as outlining these discussions, the paper also illustrates the importance of medical authority in the era prior to legalisation, and the significance of doctors' voices in relation to debates around the contraceptive pill. However, in spite of medical authority, it is clear that Irish women exercised significant agency in gaining access to the pill.

Progress toward gender equality in the United States has slowed or stalled.

We examine change in multiple indicators of gender inequality for the period of 1970 to 2018. The percentage of women (age 25 to 54) who are employed rose continuously until ∼2000 when it reached its highest point to date of 75%; it was slightly lower at 73% in 2018. Women have surpassed men in receipt of baccalaureate and doctoral degrees. The degree of segregation of fields of study declined dramatically in the 1970s and 1980s, but little since then. The desegregation of occupations continues but has slowed its pace. Examining the hourly pay of those aged 25 to 54 who are employed full-time, we found that the ratio of women's to men's pay increased from 0.61 to 0.83 between 1970 and 2018, rising especially fast in the 1980s, but much slower since 1990. In sum, there has been dramatic progress in movement toward gender equality, but, in recent decades, change has slowed and on some indicators stalled entirely.

A female genealogy of humanitarian action: compassion as a practice in the work of Josephine Butler, Florence Nightingale and Sarah Monod.

Taking the Second Conference of the International Abolitionist Federation as a starting point, this article reconstructs a female genealogy of humanitarian action by shedding light on the transnational connections established by Josephine Butler, Florence Nightingale and Sarah Monod between the abolitionist cause against the state regulation of prostitution and the nursing movement. By using gender and emotion histories as the main methodologies, their letters, journals and drawings are analysed in order to question their alleged natural compassion towards the unfortunate by examining this emotion as a practice performed according to gender, class, religious and ethnic differences. As an expression of maternal imperialism, this essentialist vision provided them with an agency while taking care of victims. However, Butler, Nightingale and Monod's care did not only work in complicity with late-nineteenth century British and French Empires, as it frequently came into conflict with the decisions taken by male authorities, such as those represented by politicians, military officials and physicians. By carefully looking at the conformation of their subjectivities through their written and visual documents, their compassion ultimately appears more as a tactic, for asserting their very different stances concerning Western women's role in society, than as an authentically experienced emotion.

[The first chilean female doctors: Eloísa Díaz Insunza and Ernestina Pérez Barahona]. / Las primeras médicas de Chile y Latinoamérica: Eloísa Díaz Insunza y Ernestina Pérez Barahona.

Dr. Eloísa Díaz Insunza (1866-1950) was the first woman to become a doctor-surgeon in Chile and Latin America in 1887. Less known is her distinguished colleague, Dr. Ernestina Pérez Barahona (1865-1951), the second woman graduated in Chile as a physician, only seven days after Dr. Diaz. Dr. Diaz entered the School of Medicine of the University of Chile in 1881 and Dr. Pérez in 1883. However, both graduated from Bachelor of Medicine and Pharmacy in 1885 and received their degree in 1887. This paper highlights the extraordinary parallelism in their medical studies.

Ben Pimlott Memorial Lecture 2018The Women's Suffrage Movement in the Balfour Family.

Given on the centenary of women's suffrage, this lecture explores the tensions and conflicts the claim for the vote raised among elite women already enmeshed in parliamentary and political circles. Drawing on the unbuttoned and sometimes angry correspondence among A.J. Balfour's suffragist sisters-in-law Lady Frances Balfour and Lady Betty Balfour, Frances' collaborator (and suffragist leader) Millicent Fawcett, Lady Betty's militant suffragette sister Lady Constance Lytton, and their old friend (and wife of the anti-suffragist Prime Minister) Margot Asquith, it explores the appeal but also the costs of this democratic claim for such "incorporated" women - and explains why some nevertheless supported it.

Las médicas cubanas en el 150 aniversario de Laura Martínez de Carvajal y del Camino / The women medics of Cuba on the 150th anniversary of Laura Martínez de Carvajal y del Camino

La mujer tiene una gran participación en el desarrollo de la sociedad actual. Su rol en el campo de la medicina ha sido progresivo con el paso del tiempo. Con perseverancia, tenacidad y valentía logró alcanzar la posición prestigiosa que hoy tiene, a pesar de la mirada detractora de sociedades arraigadas en la discriminación y el rechazo. Muchas féminas a lo largo de la historia dedicaron atención y cuidado a enfermos sin tener respaldo legal para obtener los conocimientos necesarios para ejercer esta labor. Entre las que emprendieron el estudio de la medicina se destacaron: la alemana Dorothea Christiane Leporin (1715-1762), graduada en 1754; la estadounidense Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910), quien después de ser rechazada por 12 universidades logró graduarse en 18491 y el singular caso de la suiza Enriqueta Faber (1791-1856), que se disfrazó de hombre para estudiar en la Universidad de París y después de graduada, en 1819, ejerció en la zona de Baracoa hasta que la condenaron por falsear documento público.2 Cuba, no exenta de tales heroicidades, en el periodo colonial registra una hazaña similar cuando, desafiando su época y medio social, se graduó el 15 de julio de 1889 en la Universidad de La Habana, la primera médica cubana. Este mérito lo tiene Laura Martínez de Carvajal y del Camino (1869-1941), una joven habanera que estudió las carreras de Licenciatura en Ciencias físico-matemáticas y la de Medicina.3 Después de graduada no se detuvo, continuó sus estudios hasta convertirse en la primera cubana especialista en Oftalmología. Colaboró en la preparación de la conocida obra Oftalmología Clínica, de la que se publicaron 3 ediciones durante los años 1891, 1895 y 1906.2 Laura Martínez de Carvajal y del Camino simboliza el esfuerzo inicial por la emancipación de la mujer en Cuba, su contribución constituye el primer precedente de la asistencia y la investigación médica cubana. Ayudó a transformar los desafíos que tuvieron que enfrentar las mujeres a lo largo de la historia en la innegable realidad que hoy disfruta, sostiene y protege nuestra sociedad. Las féminas en Cuba constituyen el 71 por ciento de la fuerza laboral del sector de la salud y están presentes en todas las ramas de las ciencias médicas.4 Los aportes de las mujeres en la docencia, la investigación, la asistencia y en la gerencia han sido determinante en los resultados obtenidos por el sector cubano de la salud desde su fundación. Aunque solo el 1,02 por ciento ocupa cargos de dirección,5 está demostrado que cuando asumen estos puestos gerenciales su liderazgo no es diferente al de los hombres. Se reconocen como características representativas del sexo femenino: sus habilidades para orientar a las personas, la flexibilidad, la organización y planificación del trabajo, sus capacidades de comunicación y de negociación y sus condiciones para el trabajo en equipo.6 En la historia de nuestro país, la mujer cubana ha trazado un camino fructífero. En el sector de la salud es cotidiano encontrarlas en los roles de madre, esposa y médica al mismo tiempo. Al respecto en 1999 Fidel7 afirmó: hoy es una realidad, las mujeres constituyen la mayoría de la fuerza técnica, y una mayoría que crece y cuyo talento se hace cada vez más evidente, cuyas cualidades son cada vez más incuestionables. Laura es un faro en la superación de las féminas en nuestro país, su imagen se multiplica y se proyecta hacia la sociedad con un impacto positivo. En el 150 aniversario de su natalicio debe premiarse la ciencia, la voluntad, la incondicionalidad y los resultados obtenidos por cada persona, más allá del género, la orientación sexual, la procedencia étnica y las limitaciones físicas. En su nombre recordemos que solo la mujer cura con la calidez de su alma(AU)